From Mars Hill to Golgotha: Paul’s Bridge Between Two Rocks of Judgment

Jonathan Moore, D.P.M., Ph.D.

Deity of ChristIslam and Other World ReligionsHistoricity

In ancient Athens, a massive rock known as Mars Hill—or the Areopagus [Ἄρειος Πάγος]—stood near the Acropolis as a site laden with mythology, law, and philosophical inquiry. The Greek name translates to “Ares’ Rock,” a name derived from the myth in which Ares, god of war, was tried here by other gods for the murder of Halirrhothius, son of Poseidon. This ancient tribunal became synonymous with judgment, a role it would carry into the time of the Apostle Paul, who later engaged with philosophers here.

On a different hill outside Jerusalem called Golgotha, another judgment would take place, not in myth but in the harsh reality of Roman crucifixion. Unlike Mars Hill, Golgotha was not a place of philosophical debate but of ultimate sacrifice, as Jesus Christ gave His life for humankind (John 3:16; Romans 5:8). In Acts 17, Paul confronts the philosophers of Athens on Mars Hill, redirecting their focus from myth and idolatry to the Creator, contrasting two rocks of judgment: one of mythical gods and one of the living God who offers true salvation through resurrection.

The Areopagus: A Place of Judgment and Inquiry

The Areopagus lies northwest of the Acropolis, 250 meters from the imposing temple complex of Athena. The rocky hill (rising over 70 feet above the agora) itself functioned as a critical institution in ancient Greece, serving as the high court of appeal for criminal and civil cases. Known in Greek as “martial peak,” the Areopagus combined its symbolic connection to Ares with a reputation for strict, impartial justice. Parties brought before this court were positioned between sacrificial remains, swearing oaths by the infernal deities. Here, truth was paramount, as testimonies were given without emotional manipulation to ensure fairness.1

By the time of Paul, Mars Hill was as much a center for philosophical debate as it was for legal cases. Athenians and foreigners alike would gather to discuss the nature of the divine and the meaning of life. On this hill, Paul encountered Epicureans and Stoics, the leading philosophical schools of his day. Epicureans, following Epicurus, argued that pleasure was life’s highest aim, though they emphasized rational, restrained pleasure rather than indulgence. They dismissed any notion of divine intervention in human affairs, seeing gods as indifferent. In contrast, the Stoics, founded by Zeno of Citium, embraced a worldview in which everything was governed by Fate, seeing virtue and emotional self-control as the pathway to happiness. Their deity was a cosmic force, bound to Fate, in stark contrast to Paul’s personal, sovereign Creator.

Paul’s Address to the Unknown God

Paul’s opening words on Mars Hill highlight the Athenians’ pervasive religiosity: “Men of Athens, I perceive that in every way you are very religious” (Acts 17:22).2 The city, saturated with idols, had even erected an altar “to an unknown god” (Acts 17:23, NIV). Paul seizes this symbol of uncertainty to declare that the God they worship in ignorance is indeed knowable—the Creator of heaven and earth, who “does not live in temples made by man” (Acts 17:24). By this, Paul directly challenges the Athenians’ pantheon, where gods were represented by lifeless stones and idols. Instead, he presents the true God, who is not confined to altars but is the source of life and breath.

The was, therefore, not merely a location but a microcosm of the Athenian quest for truth—a place where philosophical ideas about human existence and divinity were debated with intense scrutiny. Yet, Paul insists that the Athenians’ knowledge is incomplete. His appeal climaxes with the resurrection: “He has given assurance to all by raising him from the dead” (Acts 17:31). In a city and location dominated by lifeless idols, Paul boldly introduces the reality of a living God, validated by Jesus Christ’s resurrection.

Golgotha: The Reality of Judgment and Redemption

In contrast to Mars Hill, Golgotha—meaning “Place of the Skull”—was not a place of myth but a site grounded in history, located just outside Jerusalem’s walls. Archaeological excavations led by Kathleen Kenyon3 in the 1960s revealed that Golgotha was part of a quarry used until the first century B.C., a conclusion supported by the Gospel descriptions that it lay outside the city (John 19:20). Over time, this abandoned quarry area likely became gardens or fields, as indicated by traces of plowing and other agricultural activities, corresponding to the Gospel accounts that speak of surrounding gardens (Mark 15:21; Luke 23:26; John 19:41).

The topography of Golgotha, a hill outside the city, added to its ominous reputation as a place of judgment, fitting the Romans’ practice of executing criminals in visible, public locations to emphasize the consequences of defying Rome. Excavations have further uncovered Roman-era artifacts, such as debris layers from the Jewish-Roman wars, which indicate periods of rebuilding and destruction after Jesus’ crucifixion. Golgotha was a stark, elevated outcrop that provided visibility, making it a fitting site for the climactic judgment of Jesus, where the sin of humanity was judged through His sacrifice. In sharp contrast, Mars Hill’s fame lies in its cultural associations with philosophy and legend.

The significance of Golgotha rests in its transformation from a place of death to a symbol of hope through Christ’s resurrection. Jesus represents peace and reconciliation, transforming Golgotha into a place of redemption. Here, Paul’s message at Mars Hill finds its fulfillment. He juxtaposes the silent deities of Athenian myth with the living God, declaring, “We ought not to think that the divine being is like gold or silver or stone, an image formed by the art and imagination of man” (Acts 17:29). The judgment at Golgotha is no myth; it is a testament to the divine mercy and justice enacted on behalf of all humanity.

Connecting Mars Hill to Golgotha

Paul’s message on Mars Hill is not only a critique of Athenian idolatry but an invitation to bridge two vastly different conceptions of divinity. Mars Hill represented a judicial tradition where justice was intertwined with stories of gods like Ares. While the judicial system on Mars Hill may have attempted to maintain impartiality, the Athenian justice system was based on gods who themselves made foolish choices and were driven by selfish whims. Golgotha, on the other hand, demonstrates the true impartiality and selflessness of the living God who was willing to allow His only son to die for all humankind. While the Areopagus symbolized human attempts to grapple with concepts of justice and divinity, Golgotha represented the ultimate act of divine judgment, grounded not in myth but in Christ’s real sacrifice.

Myth Versus Reality: Theological Implications

Mars Hill embodies a philosophical ideal bound to myth, a culture of gods lacking compassion or reality. Ares embodied conflict and vengeance, traits that offered no hope for humanity. While Ares was being tried for a murder that he did commit, Jesus was the victim of capital punishment, though He was innocent of any crimes. Ares was guilty (although acquitted), and Jesus was guiltless (and still condemned). Golgotha represents a profound theological truth. Where Mars Hill’s idols were static symbols of human longing and shortcoming, Golgotha stands as the culmination of God’s plan of redemption, where a man—Christ—bore the penalty of sin for all.

When Paul speaks of the resurrection, he highlights the sharp difference between Athens’ gods and the God of Israel. While the gods of Ares’ Rock remained forever silent, the God of Golgotha validated His power through the resurrection of Jesus. This cornerstone of Paul’s argument underscores that Golgotha, unlike Mars Hill, represents true justice, love, and life. “For in him we live and move and have our being,” Paul declares, quoting a Greek poet (Acts 17:28) while pointing his listeners away from their lifeless idols to the living Creator.

Paul’s words at the Areopagus accentuate the futility of worshipping lifeless stones (Acts 17:29). Here, Paul draws from Deuteronomy and Psalms, emphasizing that the God he proclaims is not an object of human invention, but the Creator who desires a relationship with humanity. The unknown god of Mars Hill finds clarity and fulfillment in Golgotha’s sacrifice. Paul’s words, “The times of ignorance God overlooked, but now he commands all people everywhere to repent” (Acts 17:30), signify the urgency of his message, encouraging Athenians to turn from myth to the reality of Christ.

Conclusion: An Invitation from Myth to Reality

In his sermon on Mars Hill, Paul bridges the cultural and theological gap between two rocks of judgment, inviting his audience to transition from myth to reality, from lifeless idols to the living God. He does not simply critique their traditions; he reveals the incompleteness of their understanding. The resurrection, central to his argument, stands as proof of God’s power over death and the true path to life. Paul’s declaration that God “does not live in temples made by man” (Acts 17:24) points away from the temples of Athens toward the living temple found in Christ.

Through Paul’s speech, Mars Hill becomes a steppingstone to Golgotha, offering an invitation to all who seek truth to move beyond philosophy and myth, finding ultimate judgment and mercy in the redemptive act of Christ. By presenting the God of resurrection, Paul calls the Athenians—and all who hear—to turn from lifeless stones to the living “cornerstone” of faith (1 Peter 2:6-8).

Endnotes

1 Lysias (6.14) described the Areopagus as the most revered and impartial court in Athens. Sophocles, in Oedipus at Colonus (947-949), portrays Creon praising the Council as a body known for its wise deliberation, while Euripides, in Orestes (1650-1652), has Apollo assure Orestes that the Areopagus would judge his case with utmost fairness. The court’s dignity and esteemed reputation are also highlighted by Aristophanes’ decision never to satirize its activities, and it was deemed inappropriate to display humor in the presence of its members (Aeschin, 1.81-84). In the 1st century B.C., Diodorus (1.75.3) ranked the Areopagus alongside Sparta’s Council as one of the finest judicial bodies in Greece [E. Harris (2021), “Areopagus,” Oxford Classical Dictionary, August 31, https://oxfordre.com/classics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-703]. This respect reflects the Athenians’ high regard for the rule of law, with the Areopagus symbolizing stability and order. During his visit to Athens, the Apostle Paul addressed the Areopagus, discussing theology and denouncing false idols, leading to several conversions (Acts 17:16-34). Even in Paul’s time, the Areopagus retained its status as Athens’ most esteemed court, representing the city’s deep respect for the rule of law [Rachel Zelnick-Abramovitz (2011), “The Guardian of the Land: The Areopagus Council as a Symbol of Stability,” in Stability and Crisis in the Athenian Democracy, ed. Gabriel Herman (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag), 103-126].

2 Unless otherwise noted, all Scripture references in this article are taken from the English Standard Version.

3 Kathleen M. Kenyon (1967), Jerusalem: Excavating 3000 Years of History (New York: McGraw Hill), pp. 151-153; Kathleen M. Kenyon (1974), Digging Up Jerusalem (London: Ernest Benn Limited), pp. 227-231,261.

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